Social and Emotional Development in Infancy

Infants are emotional beings. Although they can’t use language to express their feelings and emotions, they are extremely sensitive to other people’s emotional states. Understanding what an emotion is and how to respond to an infant’s emotional state is crucial.

An emotion is a feeling or an affect. It can be positive or negative. It varies in intensity and is influenced by one’s perceptions. Functionalists believe that emotions are relational and are linked with an individual’s goals.

There are two broad types of emotions. Primary emotions are present in humans and animals. They appear within the first 6 months of life. They include surprise, anger, joy, sadness, and fear. Emotions promote caregiver-infant interactions.

Self-conscious emotions require cognition. Empathy, jealousy and embarrassment first appear at about 1 ½ years old. Pride, shame and guilt first appear at about 2 ½ years.

Crying is the first way an infant communicates. There are three types of crying: a basic cry, an anger cry, and a pain cry. An attentive caregiver can recognize why infants are crying and quickly respond to their needs. There is a controversy among experts about how to respond to a crying infant. Some believe a quick response is important in developing a strong caregiver-infant bond. This helps to develop trust and security. Others believe that a quick response increases and reinforces crying and spoils the child. Young infants cry to communicate their needs and quickly responding creates trust. Swaddling and massaging can also help to soothe a crying infant.

There are two types of smiling: a reflexive smile and a social smile. A reflexive smile happens during the first month after birth, usually during sleep. A social smile appears at about 2 to 3 months of age. A child responds to an external stimulus, often responding to faces.

Fear first appears at about 6 months of age. Stranger anxiety is a fear of strangers. It intensifies from 9 to 12 months. Separation protest is distress at being separated from a caregiver. It peaks at about 15 months in infancy.

Social referencing is reading emotional cues in others to help determine how to act in a particular situation. Infants “check” with a parent or caregiver before acting in a social situation.

It is important that over time an infant learns to self-soothe. Infants often use a transitional object (a teddy bear, a blanket) to make the transition from being dependent to independent. When an infant moves from relying on a caregiver to learning self-soothing strategies, they exhibit emotional regulation.

Temperament is one’s behavioral style and characteristic emotional response. There are three basic temperaments: easy, difficult, and slow to warm up. An easy child has a positive mood and adapts easily. A difficult child is negative, cries often and adapts slowly. A slow-to-warm- up child has a low activity level, low adaptability and intensity of mood. Physiological characteristics are associated with different temperaments. It is important that parents consider children’s temperaments when choosing caregivers. Goodness of fit is a match between a child’s temperament and environmental demands. It is important to pay attention to and show respect for individuality. When considering a child’s temperament, it is important to structure the child’s environment, carefully choose caregivers, and avoid labeling.

To be emotionally secure, an infant must learn to trust. Erikson believed that trust vs. mistrust is the most important stage in development (birth to one year). Infants experience the world as either secure and comfortable or insecure and uncomfortable. If a child learns to trust their caregiver in their first year of life, they will be more comfortable throughout their childhood. Erikson believed that the first year is the key year for attachment, and Freud agreed. However, Erikson believed that attachment was formed with the person an infant trusted the most (Erikson, 1956). Freud believed that infants become attached to the person giving oral satisfaction. Some developmentalists believe secure attachment in the first year provides an important foundation for psychological development. Others believe too much emphasis is placed on attachment in infancy (Santrock, 2013).

The transition to parenthood can be an emotional time for parents as well. New parents must adapt to having the responsibility of a new life as well as new demands on time, finances and changing roles. While both parents can be excited about the new baby, it still can have an impact on a marriage. The family functions as a system. Marital relations, parenting and infant behavior all impact each other. If a newborn is extremely difficult, that can put a strain on the marriage. If parents have different beliefs about parenting, that can cause stress as well. It is important that parents work together to be on the same page about parenting strategies. If parents are feeling stress, the infant is going to feel that stress as well. Mothers and fathers also typically interact differently with a child even when they are both competent caregivers. Mothers focus more on caring for the children and meeting their basic needs, while fathers are more likely to center on play activities.

Infants develop socially through interactions with the people in their environment. Reciprocal socialization is the term used to describe activities in which children interact with an adult and an adult interacts with a child. This includes eye-to-eye contact and a great deal of language. When a parent speaks to a child and a child coos back, that is an example of reciprocal socialization. Parents can also support their infants through scaffolding. Scaffolding is the support that a parent gives a child until they can do something independently. For example, when children are learning to walk, they first grip their parent’s hands tightly. Then they hold on to one finger of each hand. Next, they may take a tentative first step and fall into their parents’ arms. Finally, parents may take a few steps back encouraging children to walk independently. Scaffolding provides the child with the correct support needed to learn a new skill in a supportive environment.

Often parents need to go back to work while their child is still an infant. There are five types of parental leave: maternity leave, parental leave, child-rearing leave and family leave, but rarely does a parent receive leave with pay throughout infancy. Choosing a safe, educational environment that is a good fit for a child’s temperament can seem to be a daunting task. High quality childcare is characterized by small group sizes, low adult-child ratios, teachers with specialized training, and caregiver sensitivity to children. Higher quality care and fewer hours in care lead to positive outcomes. To raise an infant who is emotionally secure, it is important to keep in mind the effect of quality parenting on a child’s development. Parents must make good parenting decisions, spend a great deal of time interacting with their children (reciprocal socialization), teach their children to self-soothe, monitor their children’s development, and take time to find the best childcare.