Sociocultural Theory has a unique history. Russian-born Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky (1896-1934) was one of the most notable theorists of his time. A remarkable and brilliant researcher and theoretician who died young, Vygotsky has been called the “Mozart of psychology” (Toulmin, 1978). In his very short life (He died at the age of 37 from tuberculosis), he received a law degree and studied literature, linguistics, sociology, psychology, philosophy, and the arts. He is best known for his contribution to the understanding of the relationship between the social world and cognitive development—specifically, his work focused on the significance of culture and the role of language.

Vygotsky believed that language is what makes thought possible and is, thus, the basis of consciousness. Vygotsky’s fundamental insight was that children need social interaction with adults and older children to advance their psychological development. However, his work was rejected in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin’s leadership and was not released in the West until decades after his death. In the latter part of the twentieth century, his theories became widely respected and influential within the fields of developmental psychology, education, and child development, advancing human understanding of how best to support the growth and development of children to reach their fullest potential as mature human beings.

According to Vygotsky, children learn by internalizing the results of interactions with adults. The first important concept he developed is the zone of proximal development (ZPD), referring to the difference between a child’s existing abilities and what he or she can learn under the guidance of an adult or a more capable peer. In other words, it’s the gap between what children are already able to do and what they are not quite ready to accomplish by themselves. Vygotsky suggested that interactive learning with adults is most effective in helping children cross this zone. According to Vygotsky, adults and more advanced peers must help direct and organize a child’s learning before the child can master and internalize it. This idea of a significant adult guiding a child through the ZPD is known as scaffolding, or structuring learning encounters in order to support and foster a child’s emerging capabilities. Scaffolding can be provided in a few ways: in the form of a mentor, by the use of objects or experiences, or by a child’s past learning.

Vygotsky described human cognitive development as a “collaborative process,” which means that the learning process of individuals takes place through social interactions. Children acquire cognitive skills as part of their orientation into a way of life. Shared activities help them internalize their society’s modes of thinking and behaving. Moreover, social interaction not only helps children remember. It may also even be the key to memory formation. In addition to these ideas, Vygotsky also forwarded the notion that culture and community play decisive roles in early development (Berk, 2017; Crain, 2011; Santrock, 2013).

Criticisms of Sociocultural Theory

One criticism is Vygotsky’s view of active construction of knowledge. Some critics suggest that learning is not always a result of active construction. Rather, learning can sometimes result passively.

Another criticism is that Vygotsky’s theory of language is not well-developed. Vygotsky, unfortunately, died before he had a chance to fully develop his theories. His theories rely a lot on cultural influences, for it is culture that helps to develop learners’ language acquisition and cognitive development. Vygotsky believed that very little language acquisition and cognitive development result from biological factors. However, some psychologists dismiss the idea that cultural influences play a dominant role in the development of language. This lends credence to Piaget’s view of cognitive development occurring in stages and children not being able to learn some concepts until they reach a certain level of maturation.

Perhaps the main criticism of Vygotsky’s work concerns the assumption that it is relevant to all cultures. Some dismiss the idea that Vygotsky’s ideas are culturally universal and believe the concept of scaffolding, which is heavily dependent on verbal instruction, may not be equally useful in all cultures and for all types of learning. Indeed, in some instances, observation and practice may be more effective ways of learning certain skills.

Educational Implications

Although the social influences on cognitive development have been considered by other researchers, such as Piaget and Bandura, Vygotsky emphasized that individual development is inherently integrated with cultural, historical, and interpersonal factors, which is foundational to developmentally appropriate practice.