Simply defined, rhetoric is the art or method of communicating effectively to an audience, usually with the intention to persuade; thus, rhetorical analysis means analyzing how effectively a writer or speaker communicates her message or argument to the audience.

According to Aristotle, the three major parts of effective communication, also called the Rhetorical Triangle, are ethos, pathos, and logos, and they provide the foundation for a solid argument. As a reader and a listener, you must be able to recognize how writers and speakers depend upon these three rhetorical elements in their efforts to communicate. As a communicator yourself, you will benefit from the ability to see how others rely upon ethos, pathos, and logos so that you can apply what you learn from your observations to your own speaking and writing.

Rhetorical analysis can evaluate and analyze any type of communicator, whether they be a speaker, an artist, an advertiser, or a writer, but to simplify the language in this chapter, the term “writer” will represent the role of the communicator.

The Rhetorical Situation

Understanding a rhetorical situation means understanding the context of that situation.  A rhetorical situation comprises a handful of key elements, which should be identified before attempting to analyze and evaluate the use of rhetorical appeals.

These elements consist of the speaker in the situation (such as the writer), the occasion (the event that prompted the creation of the text and the topic being addressed), the audience being addressed, and the purpose for addressing the issue.

Answering the following questions will help you identify a rhetorical situation:

• Who is the speaker?
• What is the occasion the speaker is addressing?
  • What prompted the creation of the text?
  • What is the issue/topic of the text?
• Who is the audience?
  • Who is the intended audience?
  • What values does the audience hold that the author or speaker appeals to?
  • Who have been or might be secondary audiences?
  • If this is a work of fiction, what is the nature of the audience within the fiction?
• What is the writer’s purpose for addressing this issue?
  • To provoke, to attack, or to defend?
  • To push toward or dissuade from certain actions?
  • To praise or to blame?
  • To teach, to delight, or to persuade?

The foundations of rhetoric are interconnected in such a way that a writer needs to establish all of the rhetorical appeals to put forth an effective argument. If a writer lacks a pathetic appeal and only tries to establish a logical appeal, the audience will be unable to connect emotionally with the writer and, therefore, will care less about the overall argument. Brian Vickers, author of the essay In Defence of Rhetoric describes Rhetoric as a “coherent and functional system”.^[1] Immanuel Kant, an Enlightenment thinker (18th century), used a method of Rhetoric in order to get a “passionate, enthusiastic.” reaction from his audience.^[2]

If a writer lacks a logical appeal and tries to rely solely on subjective or emotionally driven examples, then the audience will not take the writer seriously because an argument based purely on opinion and emotion cannot hold up without facts and evidence to support it.  If a writer lacks either the pathetic or logical appeal, not to mention the kairotic appeal, then the writer’s ethical appeal will suffer.  All of the appeals must be sufficiently established for a writer to communicate effectively with his audience.

Appeal to Ethos

Literally translated, ethos means “character.”  In this case, it refers to the character of the writer or speaker, or more specifically, his credibility.  The writer needs to establish credibility so that the audience will trust him and, thus, be more willing to engage with the argument.  If a writer fails to establish a sufficient ethical appeal, then the audience will not take the writer’s argument seriously.

For example, if someone writes an article that is published in an academic journal, in a reputable newspaper or magazine, or on a credible website, those places of publication already imply a certain level of credibility.  If the article is about a scientific issue and the writer is a scientist or has certain academic or professional credentials that relate to the article’s subject, that also will lend credibility to the writer. Finally, if the writer shows that they are knowledgeable about the subject by providing clear explanations of points and by presenting information in an honest and straightforward way, that also helps to establish a writer’s credibility.

When evaluating a writer’s ethical appeal, ask the following questions:

• Does the writer come across as reliable?
  • Viewpoint is logically consistent throughout the text
  • Does not use hyperbolic (exaggerated) language
  • Has an even, objective tone (not malicious but also not sycophantic)
  • Does not come across as subversive or manipulative
• Does the writer come across as authoritative and knowledgeable?
  • Explains concepts and ideas thoroughly
  • Addresses any counter-arguments and successfully rebuts them
  • Uses a sufficient number of relevant sources
  • Shows an understanding of sources used
• What kind of credentials or experience does the writer have?
  • Look at byline or biographical info
  • Identify any personal or professional experience mentioned in the text
  • Where has this writer’s text been published?

Appeal to Pathos

Literally translated, pathos means “suffering.”  In this case, it refers to emotion, or more specifically, the writer’s appeal to the audience’s emotions.  When a writer establishes an effective pathetic appeal, they make the audience care about what they are  saying.  If the audience does not care about the message, then they will not engage with the argument being made.

For example, consider this: A writer is crafting a speech for a politician who is running for office, and in it, the writer raises a point about Social Security benefits.  In order to make this point more appealing to the audience so that they will feel more emotionally connected to what the politician says, the writer inserts a story about Mary, an 80-year-old widow who relies on her Social Security benefits to supplement her income.  While visiting Mary the other day, sitting at her kitchen table and eating a piece of her delicious homemade apple pie, the writer recounts how the politician held Mary’s delicate hand and promised that her benefits would be safe if he were elected. Ideally, the writer wants the audience to feel sympathy or compassion for Mary because then they will feel more open to considering the politician’s views on Social Security (and maybe even other issues). With this type of approach, being persuasive caters to the emotions, and opposing views do not need to be addressed.^[3]

When evaluating a writer’s pathetic appeal, ask the following questions:

• Does the writer try to engage or connect with the audience by making the subject matter relatable in some way?
• Does the writer have an interesting writing style?
• Does the writer use humor at any point?
• Does the writer use narration, such as storytelling or anecdotes, to add interest or to help humanize a certain issue within the text?
• Does the writer use descriptive or attention-grabbing details?
• Are there hypothetical examples that help the audience to imagine themselves in certain scenarios?
•  Does the writer use any other examples in the text that might emotionally appeal to the audience?
• Are there any visual appeals to pathos, such as photographs or illustrations?

An appropriate appeal to pathos is different from trying to unfairly play upon the audience’s feelings and emotions through fallacious, misleading, or excessively emotional appeals. Such a manipulative use of pathos may alienate the audience or cause them to “tune out.” An example would be the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA) commercials featuring the song “In the Arms of an Angel” and footage of abused animals.

This announcement created by ASPCA with Sarah Mclachlan explains the cruelty and abuse of animals in the United States of America and how they can be saved as explained at the end of the video. Even Sarah McLachlan, the singer and spokesperson featured in the commercials, admits that she changes the channel because they are too depressing.^[4]

Even if an appeal to pathos is not manipulative, such an appeal should complement rather than replace reason and evidence-based argument. In addition to making use of pathos, the author must establish her credibility (ethos) and must supply reasons and evidence (logos) in support of her position. An author who essentially replaces logos and ethos with pathos alone does not present a strong argument.

Appeal to Logos

Literally translated, logos means “word.”  In this case, it refers to information, or more specifically, the writer’s appeal to logic and reason. A successful logical appeal provides clearly organized information as well as evidence to support the overall argument.  If one fails to establish a logical appeal, then the argument will lack both sense and substance.

For example, refer to the previous example of the politician’s speech writer to understand the importance of having a solid logical appeal.  What if the writer had only included the story about 80-year-old Mary without providing any statistics, data, or concrete plans for how the politician proposed to protect Social Security benefits? Without any factual evidence for the proposed plan, the audience would not have been as likely to accept his proposal, and rightly so.

When evaluating a writer’s logical appeal, ask the following questions:

• Does the writer organize his information clearly?
  • Ideas are connected by transition words and phrases
  • Ideas have a clear and purposeful order
• Does the writer provide evidence to back his claims?
  • Specific examples
  • Relevant source material
• Does the writer use sources and data to back his claims rather than base the argument purely on emotion or opinion?
  • Does the writer use concrete facts and figures, statistics, dates/times, specific names/titles, graphs/charts/tables?
  • Are the sources that the writer uses credible?
  • Where do the sources come from? (Who wrote/published them?)
  • When were the sources published?
  • Are the sources well-known, respected, and/or peer-reviewed (if applicable) publications?

Pay particular attention to numbers, statistics, findings, and quotes used to support an argument. Be critical of the source and do your own investigation of the facts. Remember: What initially looks like a fact may not actually be one.  Maybe you’ve heard or read that half of all marriages in America will end in divorce. It is so often discussed that we assume it must be true. Careful research will show that the original marriage study was flawed, and divorce rates in America have steadily declined since 1985.^[5] If there is no scientific evidence, why do we continue to believe it? Part of the reason might be that it supports the common worry of the dissolution of the American family.

Appeal to Kairos

Literally translated, Kairos means the “supreme moment.”  In this case, it refers to appropriate timing, meaning when the writer presents certain parts of their argument as well as the overall timing of the subject matter itself.  While not technically part of the Rhetorical Triangle, it is still an important principle for constructing an effective argument. If the writer fails to establish a strong Kairotic appeal, then the audience may become polarized, hostile, or may simply just lose interest.

If appropriate timing is not taken into consideration and a writer introduces a sensitive or important point too early or too late in a text, the impact of that point could be lost on the audience.  For example, if the writer’s audience is strongly opposed to their view, and they begin the argument with a forceful thesis of why they are right and the opposition is wrong, how do you think that audience might respond?

In this instance, the writer may have just lost the ability to make any further appeals to their audience in two ways: first, by polarizing them, and second, by possibly elevating what was at first merely strong opposition to what would now be hostile opposition.  A polarized or hostile audience will not be inclined to listen to the writer’s argument with an open mind or even to listen at all.  On the other hand, the writer could have established a stronger appeal to Kairos by building up to that forceful thesis, maybe by providing some neutral points such as background information or by addressing some of the opposition’s views, rather than leading with why they are right and the audience is wrong.

Additionally, if a writer covers a topic or puts forth an argument about a subject that is currently a non-issue or has no relevance for the audience, then the audience will fail to engage because whatever the writer’s message happens to be, it won’t matter to anyone.  For example, if a writer were to put forth the argument that women in the United States should have the right to vote, no one would care; that is a non-issue because women in the United States already have that right.

When evaluating a writer’s Kairotic appeal, ask the following questions:

• Where does the writer establish her thesis of the argument in the text?  Is it near the beginning, the middle, or the end?  Is this placement of the thesis effective?  Why or why not?
• Where in the text does the writer provide her strongest points of evidence? Does that location provide the most impact for those points?
• Is the issue that the writer raises relevant at this time, or is it something no one really cares about anymore or needs to know about anymore?

“The Art of Rhetoric: Persuasive Techniques” explores the use of rhetoric in advertising such as billboards, and  apps and how it’s presented for people to understand the advertiser’s point of an argument.

Connection to Media Literacy

The rhetorical appeals of logos (logic), pathos (emotion), ethos (credibility), and kairos (timing) are essential tools for analyzing and interpreting communication and media messages. Understanding these elements enhances media literacy by providing a framework for evaluating how messages are crafted to influence specific audiences.

Media literacy requires the ability to critically analyze various forms of media, including advertisements, news reports, social media posts, and more. By recognizing the use of logos, pathos, ethos, and kairos, individuals can assess how these appeals are employed to achieve specific communication goals. For example, a political advertisement may use logos to present factual data, pathos to evoke patriotic feelings, ethos to establish the candidate’s credibility, and kairos to time the message effectively before an election. This multifaceted analysis enables individuals to discern underlying strategies, biases, and intentions, fostering a more informed and critical engagement with media.

In July of 2013, an NPR broadcast with host Reena Miller and guest Dr. Anne Curzan, professor of English at the University of Michigan, asked, “So when did rhetoric become so closely and negatively tied with politics?” Dr. Curzan states that “rhetoric can be very negative where people say, empty rhetoric, or harsh rhetoric. But sometimes people use it to mean talk.” Dr. Curzan is stating a fact about “mean talk” that is ubiquitous ten years after her statement. In 2023, most news networks use the word rhetoric every day. And in most cases this usually refers to “ mean talk.” So it seems that the word rhetoric can be used in two ways, a politician can use rhetoric that creates a polarization amongst the audience, and or constituents. The opposite usage is often found in academia, such as giving a counterpoint to an argument.^[6]

In today’s complex media landscape, understanding the rhetorical appeals of logos, pathos, ethos, and kairos empowers individuals to become more discerning media consumers. It helps them recognize how messages are tailored to persuade or influence through logical reasoning, emotional appeal, credibility, and timing. This awareness promotes responsible and thoughtful media consumption, allowing individuals to evaluate the validity and effectiveness of messages. Whether assessing the reliability of a news story, the persuasiveness of an advertisement, or the timing of a social media campaign, applying these rhetorical principles enhances the ability to navigate and respond to media content critically. This understanding contributes to a more media-literate society, capable of engaging with media messages in an informed and thoughtful manner.

Case Study: Apple Advertising

Outstanding advertising campaigns will find ways to draw on multiple forms of rhetorical appeals. Apple is one company that has done this in many different ways over the years.^[7] Take a look at the three videos below, linked on YouTube, and see if you can determine which one of them uses either logos, pathos, or ethos.

Example 1:^[8]

Apple is promoting its latest Mac as bigger and better. The emphasis is on the Mac’s ability to multi-task at high-speed with great sound while maintaining outstanding color and giving you more battery power.

Example 2:^[9]

In this famous Apple advertisement, Apple breaks the barrier of “Sameness”. Apple clearly defines its product differently from the rest.

Example 3:^[10]

This Apple advertisement uses the tagline “How hard can it be?”, showing the Mac computer being used in a wide range of applications from creativity to science, emphasizing ease of use.

After watching all three of these videos, how do you think Apple might use an appeal to Kairos in an advertisement?