Vocabulary

An enzyme required to convert testosterone to 5α-dihydrotestosterone.

A transient all-or-nothing electrical current that is conducted down the axon when the membrane potential reaches the threshold of excitation.

Physiological and behavioral responses that are reversible and short-lived, occurring in adulthood

A behavioral genetic research method that involves the comparison of adopted children to their adoptive and biological parents.

The process in which new neurons are generated in the adult brain.

An emotional process that includes moods, subjective feelings, and discrete emotions.

The study of how the brain and nervous system process emotions

Signals that travel from the periphery toward the central nervous system and brain, or travel deeper centrally within the brain

The stage of neuronal development after migration where different classes of neurons coalesce to form different nervous system structures.

A form of social interaction that includes threat, attack, and fighting.

A drug that increases or enhances a neurotransmitter’s effect

Specific version of a gene

Almond-shaped neural structure that is primarily responsible for regulating emotional responses, especially fear.

A build-up of misfolded proteins in the brain that play a central role in Alzheimer’s disease

A drug that blocks a neurotransmitter’s effect

Inability to create new declarative memories

Intense, excessive, and persistent worry and fear about everyday situations. Linked to heightened physical sensations, such as fast heart rate, rapid breathing, sweating, and fatigue

A group of disorders that are characterized by excessive and persistent feelings of intense worry, fear, and dread, as well as physical sensations like increased blood pressure and fast heart rate

The process of programmed cell death to eliminate unwanted cells.

Research that can be directly applied to an existing problem

A fiber tract that connects Wernicke’s and Broca’s areas

Association of a stimulus with a cue such as with classical Pavlovian conditioning or instrumental conditioning

A part of the peripheral nervous system that connects to glands and smooth muscles. Consists of sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.

Part of the neuron that extends off the soma, splitting several times to connect with other neurons; main output of the neuron.

A long threadlike part of a neuron that carries electrical impulses away from the cell body and to other neurons

Subcortical structures of the cerebral hemispheres involved in voluntary movement.

Also known as pure or fundamental research, seeks to expand scientific knowledge and understand the mechanisms of brain function

The empirical science of how genes and environments combine to generate behavior.

Tumors that don't spread to other body parts

A type of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Characterized by persistent, intense focus and anxiety over perceived body defects and flaws in appearance

Characterized by extreme mood swings from depressive lows to manic highs

Attraction to two sexes.

A class of psychological disorders; characterized by mania as the defining feature

Composed of the medulla oblongata, pons, and the midbrain. The part of the brain that connects the cerebrum to the spinal cord.

A genetic technique in which individual neurons can be labeled and mapped using fluorescent proteins.

Subtype of disorganized or abnormal motor behavior; involves significant reductions in voluntary movement and reduced reactivity to environmental stimulation

A “C” shaped subcortical structure located near the thalamus that contributes to the formation of the basal ganglia. There is a caudate nucleus located in each cerebral hemisphere.

A bi-lipid layer of molecules that separates the cell from the surrounding extracellular fluid.

A subset of cell surface molecules that are involved in the binding of cells with other cells.

The portion of the nervous system that includes the brain and spinal cord.

Spherical cell group located in the amygdala that is primarily responsible for the bodily reactions associated with fear

The major fissure that divides the frontal and the parietal lobes.

The distinctive structure at the back of the brain between the cerebrum and brainstem. Important for muscle control, such as balance and movement.

Narrow, 15mm, channel that connects the third ventricle with the fourth ventricle and facilitates the transport of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

The outermost layer of gray matter of the cerebral hemispheres.

The cerebral cortex, underlying white matter, and subcortical structures.

Two bundles of nerve fibers that are located in the ventral midbrain and connect the cerebrum to the brain stem.

Interconnected cavities within the brain tissue that produce and secrete cerebrospinal fluid to protect the brain

Cerebrospinal fluid is an ultrafiltrate of plasma that surrounds the brain and spinal cord.

Usually refers to the cerebral cortex and associated white matter, but in some texts includes the subcortical structures.

a section of a book.

The sex of an individual as determined by the sex chromosomes (typically XX or XY) received at the time of fertilization.

a long strand of genetic information

A medial cortical brain region that is a part of the limbic system and is Involved in emotion, motivation, learning, and memory.

Making a temporary memory more stable and long-lasting

Similar findings reported from multiple studies using different methods.

Primary bundle of white matter tracts that connect the left and right cerebral hemispheres.

In neuroanatomy, cortex refers to a thin sheet of neurons

A brain injury that occurs under the site of impact (coup) and on the side opposite the impact due to the brain moving inside the skull (contrecoup)

A brain injury that occurs under the site of impact (coup) and on the side opposite the impact due to the brain moving inside the skull (contrecoup)

A set of 12 paired nerves that emerge directly from the brain and relay information between the brain and parts of the body; primarily to the head and neck regions.

A special class of sensitive periods in which the effects of experience have lasting consequences on subsequent brain development. Absence of key experiences may lead to a disrupted course of brain development.

An adaptive process of the brain, such that loss of one sensory modality induces cortical reorganization that leads to enhanced sensory performance in other sensory modalities.

The study of the cellular composition of the central nervous system’s tissues, with a focus on the arrangement, structure, and function of cells.

Memory that involves remembering events and facts. Also called explicit memory.

implanting electrodes within areas of the brain. The electrodes produce electrical impulses that affect brain activity to treat certain medical conditions.

False beliefs that are contrary to external reality and are firmly held despite contrary evidence

Damage or loss of the myelin sheath surrounding axons in the brain.

Part of a neuron that extends away from the cell body and is the main input to the neuron.

A branch-like structure of the neuron that extends from the cell body.

Helix-shaped molecule made of nucleotide base pairs

The outcome variable that is measured by the researcher. The dependent variable depends on changes of the independent variable.

A class of mood disorders; marked by a persistent feeling of sadness and loss of interest that causes significant impairments in daily life

The current classification system used to diagnose psychological disorders by mental health professionals. Editions of the DSM are typically updated every 5-7 years

Neural structure located deep in the brain that includes the thalamus and hypothalamus. Connects the midbrain to the forebrain.

The force on molecules to move from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration.

A variant of Magnetic Resonance Imaging that can non-invasively reveal unique information of white matter microstructures and axonal pathways within the central nervous system.

Prominent feature of Schizophrenia; characterized by extremely disjointed and atypical motor behavior that can cause problems in everyday life, ranging from childlike silliness to unpredictable agitation

Prominent feature of Schizophrenia; characterized by a pattern of incoherent and illogical thought processes

Twins conceived from two ova and two sperm.

An epigenetic mechanism wherein a methyl group can tag DNA and activate or repress genes

Allele whose phenotype will be expressed in an individual that possesses that allele

Neurotransmitter involved in learning, motivation, and reward. Implicated in schizophrenia

An enduring account that suggests a dysregulated dopamine system contributes to symptomatology of schizophrenia; has undergone many iterations

Outermost of the three germ layers in a developing embryo.

Signals that travel away from the central nervous system or brain to the periphery, such as motor command

Psychiatric procedure that involves passing electrical currents through the brain to trigger a brief seizure. Effective in treating depression.

A neuroimaging technique that measures electrical brain activity via multiple electrodes on the scalp.

The force on two ions with similar charge to repel each other; the force of two ions with opposite charge to attract to one another.

A growing organism in the initial stages of development after fertilization.

A method for acquiring knowledge is one based on observation, including experimentation, rather than a method based only on forms of logical argument or previous authorities.

The process of initially learning new information

A ductless gland from which hormones are released into the blood system in response to specific biological signals.

Innermost of the three germ layers in a developing embryo.

Originating from within an organism. For example, endogenous opioids such as endorphins are produced in the brain.

memory trace, or a hypothetical construct that represents the physical changes in the brain that constitute memory.

The process by which a drug can enhance the production of an enzyme

A protein produced by a living organism that allows or helps a chemical reaction to occur

the branch of medicine that investigates the incidence, causes, and possible control of diseases

The genome-wide distribution of epigenetic marks. These marks tell the genome what to do and where and when to do it.

Memory of an autobiographical event (e.g., personal experience)

A depolarizing postsynaptic current that causes the membrane potential to become more positive and move towards the threshold of excitation.

A theory or hypothesis is falsifiable (or refutable) if it can be logically contradicted by an empirical test.

The induction of female traits.

A deep or large sulcus or valley in the brain

Also referred to as the prosencephalon. The forward most part of the brain. Consists of the telencephalon and diencephalon.

The frontal cortex contains four main gyri.

The front most (anterior) part of the cerebrum; anterior to the central sulcus and responsible for motor output and planning, language, judgment, and decision-making.

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI): A neuroimaging technique that infers brain activation by measuring changes in oxygen levels in the blood.

A type of cell junction in which neighboring cells are connected through intercellular channels. Also facilitates the transfer of molecules directly from the cytoplasm of one cell to another cell.

The psychological and sociological representations of one’s biological sex.

Personal depictions of masculinity and femininity.

Societal expectations of masculinity and femininity.

Gene expression is the process by which the information encoded in a gene is used to direct the assembly of a protein molecule and ultimately affect the phenotype.

A research technique that involves inserting a specific gene in an organism, which allows researchers to study the effect of that gene on the phenotype.

A research technique that involves removing or inactivating a specific gene in an organism (often a fruit fly, zebrafish, or mouse), which allows researchers to study the effect of that gene on the phenotype.

A sequence of DNA that controls or partially controls physical characteristics

Genetic makeup of an individual

Non-neuronal cells in the nervous system that play a wide range of supporting roles in the nervous system.

Non-neuronal cells that support and insulate neurons. Important for supporting typical brain function and protecting neurons.

A nucleus of the basal ganglia.

The sex of an individual as determined by the possession of either ovaries or testes. Females have ovaries, whereas males have testes.

Characterized by intense irrational thoughts and fears centered on perceived victimization or belief that one is being persecuted

Composes the bark or the cortex of the cerebrum and consists of the cell bodies of the neurons (see also white matter).

Specialized cells in the entorhinal cortex that fire at consistent intervals as an animal moves through space. Important for establishing cognitive maps of different environments.

(plural) Folds between sulci in the cortex.

(plural: gyri)
A fold between sulci in the cortex.

Decrease in response after repeated presentation of a stimulus

Perceptual experience that emerges in the absence of external stimulation. Extends across different sensory sources (i.e., visual, auditory, tactile, etc.)

Neuropsychological condition in which damage to the parietal lobe impairs attention and awareness of one side of space. Damage to the left hemisphere would lead to neglect of the right visual field.

Strokes caused by a ruptured or leaking blood vessel

An easily misinterpreted statistical construct that purports to measure the role of genetics in the explanation of differences among individuals.

Opposite-sex attraction.

Consisting of two different alleles

Also referred to as the rhombencephalon. The lower portion of the brain stem. Consists of the metencephalon and myelencephalon.

(plural form, hippocampi)
A nucleus inside (medial) the temporal lobe implicated in learning and memory.

An epigenetic mechanism in which a chemical group can be attached to a histone to alter the extent to which DNA is wrapped around histones and thereby alters the availability of genes in the DNA and gene expression

A type of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Characterized by persistent difficulty in parting with possessions due to a perceived need to save the items

Same-sex attraction.

Consisting of two identical alleles

An organic chemical messenger released from endocrine cells that travels through the blood to interact with target cells at some distance to cause a biological response.

Part of the diencephalon. Regulates biological drives with pituitary gland.

a tentative explanation of some phenomenon that is used as a starting point for further investigation.

A variable that is manipulated by the researcher. The independent variable is “independent” of other variables and is typically considered the cause.

A hyperpolarizing postsynaptic current that causes the membrane potential to become more negative and move away from the threshold of excitation.

Region in the cerebral cortex tucked deep into the lateral sulcus. The insula is Involved in many functions and serves as a hub that links large-scale brain systems.

A classification system for mental and behavioral disorders used primarily by the World Health Organization to support the global comparison of mortality and morbidity statistics.

Born with either an absence or some combination of male and female reproductive organs, sex hormones, or sex chromosomes.

Proteins that span the cell membrane, forming channels that specific ions can flow through between the intracellular and extracellular space.

Ion channel that opens to allow ions to permeate the cell membrane under specific conditions, such as the presence of a neurotransmitter or a specific membrane potential.

Strokes caused by interruption of blood supply

A condition of the central nervous system caused by severe deficiency of thiamine (vitamin B-1) that primarily affects the memory system.

(or LGN) A nucleus in the thalamus that is innervated by the optic nerves and sends signals to the visual cortex in the occipital lobe.

Part of the prefrontal cortex that supports higher-order functions such as working memory, selective attention, and planning. It is implicated in mood disorders.

The major fissure that delineates the temporal lobe below the frontal and the parietal lobes.

Refers to the idea that specific functions may reside primarily in one hemisphere or the other (e.g., for the majority of individuals, the left hemisphere is most responsible for language).

Involved in learning and emotion. Includes the subcortical structures of the amygdala and hippocampal formation as well as some cortical structures, such as the cingulate cortex. Responsible for aversion and gratification.

Different brain functions are processed in or localized to specific brain areas

A long lasting decrease in the strength of synaptic connection based on recent patterns of activity.

Memories that have become stabilized over an extended period of time (days, weeks, years).

A persistent strengthening of synaptic connections based on recent patterns of activity. A mechanism underlying “neurons that fire together, wire together.”

Deep groove that separates the two cerebral hemispheres of the brain.

A brain science technique that measures brain activity by picking up the tiny magnetic fields generated by neural activity.

Tumors that can spread and invade surrounding tissue

Prominent feature of bipolar disorder and related disorders; a state of abnormally and persistently excessive enthusiasm and irritable mood

The induction of male traits.

Parental behavior performed by the mother.

Extension of the spinal cord that forms the lowest part of the brain stem.

The process in which reactivated memories become transiently sensitive to modifications

One of the three primary vesicles. Also referred to as the midbrain.

Middle layer of the three germ layers in a developing embryo.

Breakdown of substances

The part of the hindbrain that develops into the cerebellum and pons.

Also referred to as the mesencephalon. The top-most portion of the brain stem. Consists of the tectum, the cerebral aqueduct, the tegmentum, and the cerebral peduncles.

Twins conceived from a single ovum and a single sperm, therefore genetically identical.

A class of psychological disorders marked by severe disturbances to emotions and mood

Sudden, permanent change in a gene

The part of the hindbrain that develops into the medulla oblongata.

Substance around the axon of a neuron that serves as insulation to allow the action potential to conduct rapidly toward the terminal buttons.

A form of cell injury which results in premature, unprogrammed cell death due to environmental factors such as injury or disease.

Refer to an absence or reduction of normal behaviors related to motivation and interest, such as social withdrawal, diminished affective response, lack of interest.

Complex network of nerves and cells that transmit information between the brain and the rest of the body.

A temporary cluster of cells that originate from the side of the neural tube proximal to the epidermal layer. Neural crest cells give rise to diverse cell types that can support many different systems.

Stress, through its effects on cortisol, acts upon a pre-existing vulnerability to trigger or worsen schizophrenia symptoms.

The process in which the brain spends fewer energy resources to carry out specific brain functions and subsequent behavior. Typically indicative of a matured functional brain network.

Ridges of the ectoderm on the neural plate that form around the neural groove and fuse to form the neural tube.

Formed when the neural plate folds inward and extends the entire length of the embryo.

The mass production of cells. Most prominent during early embryonic development.

Self-renewing cells that ultimately generate neurons or glial cells, which give rise to the entire nervous system.

The hollow longitudinal tube formed by the infolding of the neural plate and subsequent fusion of the neural folds. Sets the basis for development of the brain and spinal cord.

abnormal accumulations of a protein called tau that collect inside neurons and is a key biological marker in Alzheimer’s disease

The process by which new neurons are formed in the brain.

the process by which neurons use chemical signals (e.g., some neurotransmitters) to bias many neurons, resulting in changes to neuronal properties such as firing activity and synaptic connectivity.

The period when neurons migrate from their origin location to their target location. Neuronal Migration brings different classes of neurons together so that they can interact and give rise to various nervous system structures.

The fundamental units in the brain that transfer information from the brain to the rest of the body.

The ability of the brain to reorganize and adapt its activity in response to intrinsic or extrinsic experiences.

A chemical substance produced by a neuron that is used for communication between neurons

Chemical substance released by the presynaptic terminal button that acts on the postsynaptic cell.

Changes in behavior in response to repeated exposure to a stimulus

Memory for information that does not require conscious learning. Includes procedural memory, priming, non-associative learning, and associative learning.

A neurotransmitter and hormone. Plays an important role in arousal and the “fight-or-flight” response. It is housed primarily in the locus coeruleus.

(plural: nuclei)
In neuroanatomy, nucleus or nuclei refers to a cluster of neurons.

Collection of nerve cells found in the brain which typically serve a specific function.

A region of the basal forebrain located in front of the preoptic region.

A group of disorders that center on a cycle of intrusive thoughts, feelings of anxiety, repetitive behaviors, and short-term reliefs.

The back most (posterior) part of the cerebrum; involved in vision.

glial cells that generate and maintain the myelin sheath

A biological technique to control the activity of neurons or other cell types with light.

A region of the frontal lobes of the brain above the eye sockets.

Early, generally irreversible, effects of steroid hormones that occur during development

A peptide hormone secreted by the pituitary gland to trigger lactation, as well as social bonding.

Characterized by intense irrational thoughts and fears centered on perceived victimization or belief that one is being persecuted

A division of the autonomic nervous system that is slower than its counterpart—that is, the sympathetic nervous system—and works in opposition to it. Generally engaged in “rest and digest” functions.

Behaviors performed in relation to one’s offspring that contributes directly to the survival of those offspring

The part of the cerebrum between the frontal and occipital lobes; involved in bodily sensations, visual attention, and integrating the senses.

Deep sulcus that divides the parietal lobe from the occipital lobe.

Parental behavior performed by the father or other male.

The gray matter in the midbrain near the cerebral aqueduct.

All of the nerve cells that connect the central nervous system to all the other parts of the body.

The action of a drug through the body, including absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion

The observable characteristics of an individual

Small pea-sized gland that produces and secretes hormones as part of the endocrine system. Interacts with the hypothalamus to monitor the regulation of growth, development, and metabolism.

Specialized cells in the hippocampus that code specific locations in an environment. Important for establishing cognitive maps of different environments

Multiple genes affecting a given trait

The use of many medications

Part of the hindbrain. A bridge that connects the cerebral cortex with the medulla, and reciprocally transfers information back and forth between the brain and the spinal cord.

A neuroimaging technique that measures brain activity by detecting the presence of a radioactive substance in the brain that is initially injected into the bloodstream and then pulled in by active brain tissue.

A psychological disorder that develops in some individuals who have experienced a traumatic event. It is characterized by intense, vivid memories of the traumatic event or related events and intense emotional and physical reactions.

Covers the front part of the frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex. Supports executive functions such as goal-directed behavior, cognitive flexibility, habit formation. Implicated in many psychological disorders

A part of the anterior hypothalamus.

Located on the postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe; primarily responsible for processing sensory information from the body.

The three primary vesicles include the prosencephalon (forebrain), mesencephalon (midbrain), and rhombencephalon (hindbrain).

The presentation of one stimulus influences the response to a subsequent stimulus

Type of unconscious memory that allows for remembering procedures and performance of specific tasks

A primary progestin that is involved in pregnancy and mating behaviors.

A protein hormone that is highly conserved throughout the animal kingdom. It has many biological functions associated with reproduction and synergistic actions with steroid hormones.

One of the three primary vesicles. Also referred to as the forebrain.

A drug that changes mood or the way someone feels

The scientific study of mental illness or disorders.

A drug that changes mood or emotion, usually used when talking about drugs prescribed for various mental conditions (depression, anxiety, schizophrenia, etc.)

A subcortical structure that contributes to the formation of the basal ganglia. Involved in learning and motor control.

Scientific and mathematical methods for inferring genetic and environmental processes based on the degree of genetic and environmental similarity among organisms.

The most common mode of neuronal migration in which neurons migrate in a radial pattern to ultimately establish the different layers of the cortex.

A way of placing participants into different groups with randomization. Every member of the sample has an equal chance of being placed in a control group or an experimental group.

A chemical structure on the cell surface or inside of a cell that has an affinity for a specific chemical configuration of a hormone, neurotransmitter, or other compound.

Allele whose phenotype will be expressed only if an individual is homozygous for that allele

Regenerative process by which the myelin sheath around a demyelinated axon is restored

A research framework for investigating mental disorders in terms of varying degrees of dysfunction in psychological and biological systems

The voltage inside the cell relative to the voltage outside the cell while the cell is at rest (approximately -70 mV).

The process of accessing stored memories

Inability to retrieve memories from one's past

One of the three primary vesicles. Also referred to as the hindbrain.

Schizophrenia is a psychological disorder characterized by major disturbances in thought, perception, emotion, and behavior. Major symptoms include hallucinations, delusions, disorganized thinking, abnormal motor behavior, and negative symptoms.

The five secondary vesicles include the telencephalon, diencephalon, mesencephalon, metencephalon, and myelencephalon.

Memory of factual information

Time limited period of development where intrinsic and extrinsic experiences have an especially strong impact on brain development.

Increased responsivity after repeated exposure to the same stimulus

Short-term retention of incoming sensory information (e.g., sights, sounds, smells)

A biological descriptor based on reproductive, hormonal, anatomical, and genetic characteristics. Typical sex categories include male, female, and intersex.

The point at which an individual begins to develop as either a male or a female. In animals that have sex chromosomes, this occurs at fertilization. Females are XX and males are XY. All eggs bear X chromosomes, whereas sperm can either bear X or Y chromosomes. Thus, it is the males that determine the sex of the offspring.

The process by which individuals develop the characteristics associated with being male or female. Differential exposure to gonadal steroids during early development causes sexual differentiation of several structures including the brain.

Personal sexual attributes changing due to psychosocial circumstances.

A person’s sexual attraction to other people.

Temporary memory store that holds and processes information for a limited period of time

An ion channel that uses the neuron’s energy (adenosine triphosphate, ATP) to pump three Na+ ions outside the cell in exchange for bringing two K+ ions inside the cell.

Cell body of a neuron that contains the nucleus and genetic information and directs protein synthesis.

Characterized by false beliefs that a person’s internal or external bodily functions are abnormal

A part of the peripheral nervous system that uses cranial and spinal nerves in volitional actions.

A term that refers to how small the elements of an image are; high spatial resolution means the device or technique can resolve very small elements; in neuroscience, it describes how small a structure in the brain can be imaged.

Mixed nerves that carry sensory and motor information between the spinal cord and rest of the body.

Protrusions on the dendrite of a neuron that form synapses with terminal buttons of the presynaptic axon.

A surgical device that immobilizes an animal’s head and allows precise positioning in an animal’s brain using a three-dimensional coordinate system.

Retention of encoded information

A band of fibers that runs along the top surface of the thalamus.

A neuroimaging technique that uses the magnetic resonance scanner to create high resolution images of brain structure. The images show brain anatomy, including location, size, and integrity of white and gray matter (but does not reveal brain function or neuronal activity).

Structures that lie beneath the cerebral cortex, but above the brainstem.

Involved in transferring chemical signals related to reward. Interacts with the basal ganglia to facilitate motor and reward processes.

A small lens-shaped nucleus located within the diencephalon. Interacts with the basal ganglia to facilitate motor regulation.

(plural) Grooves separating folds of the cortex.

(plural: sulci)
A groove separating folds of the cortex.

A division of the autonomic nervous system, that is faster than its counterpart that is the parasympathetic nervous system and works in opposition to it. Generally engaged in “fight or flight” functions.

The tiny space separating neurons

Specialized junction through which neural signals are transmitted between neurons.

Also known as the synaptic cleft; the small space between the presynaptic terminal button and the postsynaptic dendritic spine, axon, or soma.

Groups of neurotransmitters packaged together and located within the terminal button.

Another mode of neuronal migration in which neurons migrate tangentially and may emerge as a result of interactions with axons, astrocytes, or independent of interactions with other cells. Does not rely on glial cells for migration.

A cell that has receptors for a specific chemical messenger (hormone or neurotransmitter).

The uppermost part of the midbrain.

The ventral portion of the midbrain.

Largest portion of the central nervous system and consists of the cerebrum and related structures.

The part of the cerebrum in front of (anterior to) the occipital lobe and below the lateral fissure; involved in vision, auditory processing, memory, and integrating vision and audition.

A term that refers to how small a unit of time can be measured; high temporal resolution means capable of resolving very small units of time; in neuroscience, it describes how precisely in time a process can be measured in the brain.

The part of the end of the axon that forms synapses with postsynaptic dendrite, axon, or soma.

The primary androgen secreted by the testes of most vertebrate animals, including men.

A part of the diencephalon that works as a gateway for incoming and outgoing information.

A broad explanation or group of explanations for some aspect of the natural world that is consistently supported by evidence over time

Specific membrane potential that the neuron must reach to initiate an action potential.

A neuroscience technique whereby a weak current is applied to the head that temporarily activates or inhibits ongoing neuronal activity.

A neuroscience technique whereby a brief magnetic pulse is applied to the head that temporarily activates or inhibits ongoing neuronal activity.

A transgender person whose birth sex was female.

A transgender person whose birth sex was male.

A behavior genetic research method that involves a comparison of the similarity of identical (monozygotic; MZ) and fraternal (dizygotic; DZ) twins.

Part of the prefrontal cortex that is involved in value computation, decision-making, and emotion regulation. Implicated in mood disorders

The part of the brain that processes visual information that is located in the back of the brain.

A language area in the temporal lobe where linguistic information is comprehended (Also see Broca’s area).

Regions of the nervous system that represent the axons of the nerve cells; whitish in color because of myelination of the nerve cells.

A cell formed by the union of a female gamete (egg) with a male gamete (sperm).